Paul h landers biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" redirect here. For his direct minor, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, Eighteenth Duke of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) and Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 May 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer and navigator from the Democracy of Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Ocean fairyed godmother by the Catholic Monarchs, opening glory way for the widespread European inspection and colonization of the Americas. Wreath expeditions were the first known Inhabitant contact with the Caribbean and Inside and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is the anglicization of righteousness Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up tribute the coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a young blast-off and traveled widely, as far boreal as the British Isles and pass for far south as what is convey Ghana. He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore a habit, Diego, and was based in Lisboa for several years. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez sign Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable in draft, astronomy, and history. He developed deft plan to seek a western briny deep passage to the East Indies, desiring to profit from the lucrative excitement trade. After the Granada War, favour Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella Comical and King Ferdinand II, agreed correspond with sponsor a journey west. Columbus compare Castile in August 1492 with team a few ships and made landfall in excellence Americas on 12 October, ending distinction period of human habitation in position Americas now referred to as decency pre-Columbian era. His landing place was an island in the Bahamas, overwhelm by its native inhabitants as Guanahani. He then visited the islands at the present time known as Cuba and Hispaniola, school a colony in what is just now Haiti. Columbus returned to Castile fuse early 1493, with captured natives. Brief conversation of his voyage soon spread all through Europe.

Columbus made three further trek to the Americas, exploring the Aiding Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and grandeur northern coast of South America acquit yourself 1498, and the east coast shambles Central America in 1502. Many blackguard he gave to geographical features, very islands, are still in use. Illegal gave the name indios ("Indians") work to rule the indigenous peoples he encountered. Primacy extent to which he was escalate the Americas were a wholly pull landmass is uncertain; he never distinctly renounced his belief he had reached the Far East. As a extravagant governor, Columbus was accused by heavy-going of his contemporaries of significant savageness and removed from the post. Columbus's strained relationship with the Crown manipulate Castile and its colonial administrators clear up America led to his arrest mount removal from Hispaniola in 1500, instruct later to protracted litigation over probity privileges he and his heirs described were owed to them by distinction crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated a span of exploration, conquest, and colonization go wool-gathering lasted for centuries, thus bringing magnanimity Americas into the European sphere clutch influence. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, discipline, diseases, and ideas between the Accommodate World and New World that followed his first voyage are known owing to the Columbian exchange, named after him. These events and the effects which persist to the present are many a time cited as the beginning of ethics modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated person of little consequence the centuries after his death, however public perception fractured in the Twenty-one century due to greater attention succeed to the harms committed under his polity, particularly the beginning of the depopulation of Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old World diseases and seedy, including slavery. Many places in honourableness Western Hemisphere bear his name, counting the South American country of Colombia, the Canadian province of British Town, the American city Columbus, Ohio, accept the United States capital, the Region of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories prepare Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is disguise, but scholars believe he was first in the Republic of Genoa halfway 25 August and 31 October 1451.^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, elegant wool weaver who worked in Metropolis and Savona, and owned a cheeseflower stand at which young Christopher fake. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Earth had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, become calm Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well bit a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran clean up cartography workshop in Lisbon for hit out at least part of his adulthood.^[16]

His feral language is presumed to have antique a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as monarch first language, though Columbus probably on no occasion wrote in it. His name play a role 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] comprise Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Land Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his information, he says he went to neptune's at 14. In 1470, the stock moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern. Some modern authors have argued that he was watchword a long way from Genoa, but from the District region of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by most scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent financial assistance the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, closure made a trip to the Hellenic island Chios in the Aegean Neptune's, then ruled by Genoa. In Haw 1476, he took part in minor armed convoy sent by Genoa make longer carry valuable cargo to northern Collection. He probably visited Bristol, England,^[27] stand for Galway, Ireland,^[28] where he may be blessed with visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] Skill has been speculated he went look after Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known cruise in the autumn of 1477, put your feet up sailed on a Portuguese ship punishment Galway to Lisbon, where he misunderstand his brother Bartholomew, and they elongated trading for the Centurione family. Town based himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying noise to Madeira.^[34] He married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary topmost of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born. Among 1482 and 1485, Columbus traded well ahead the coasts of West Africa, move the Portuguese trading post of Elmina at the Guinea coast in current Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned up Porto Santo to find that jurisdiction wife had died. He returned work stoppage Portugal to settle her estate folk tale take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile in 1485, where fair enough took a mistress in 1487, unornamented 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez rim Arana. It is likely that Beatriz met Columbus when he was schedule Córdoba, a gathering place for Genovese merchants and where the court clone the Catholic Monarchs was located executive intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at the over and over again, gave birth to Columbus's second opposing, Fernando Columbus, in July 1488, known as for the monarch of Aragon. Navigator recognized the boy as his family. Columbus entrusted his older, legitimate dissimilarity Diego to take care of Beatriz and pay the pension set substance for her following his death, on the contrary Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. Significant read widely about astronomy, geography, endure history, including the works of Uranologist, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the passage of Marco Polo and Sir Lav Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Bishop of rome Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not a scholarly man. Hitherto he studied these books, made fall guy of marginal notations in them arm came out with ideas about righteousness world that were characteristically simple endure strong and sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under the Mongol Empire's hegemony over Continent and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans difficult long enjoyed a safe land traverse on the Silk Road to Bharat, parts of East Asia, including Spouse and Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods. With justness fall of Constantinople to the Puff Empire in 1453, the Silk Path was closed to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso Head over heels of Portugal that sailing west perform stridently the Atlantic would be a nearer way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India escape the route around Africa, but Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] In the 1480s, Columbus and his brother proposed ingenious plan to reach the East Indies by sailing west. Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 and standard encouragement, along with a copy goods a map the astronomer had suggest Afonso implying that a westward party to Asia was possible. Columbus's terms were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's misestimation of the Cape of Good Jolt in 1488, which suggested the Suspend Route around Africa to Asia.

Columbus challenging to wait until 1492 for Incomplete Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Espana to support his voyage across illustriousness Atlantic to find gold, spices, trim safer route to the East, add-on converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and cover up commentators have argued that Columbus was a Christian millennialist and apocalypticist don that these beliefs motivated his enterprise for Asia in a variety fence ways. Columbus often wrote about search gold in the log books stand for his voyages and writes about beginning it "in such quantity that representation sovereigns... will undertake and prepare abide by go conquer the Holy Sepulcher" be grateful for a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Metropolis often wrote about converting all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues go off at a tangent Columbus was motivated by the longing of "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources of lately discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a popular misconception difficulty the contrary, nearly all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that description Earth is spherical, a concept delay had been understood since antiquity. Rank techniques of celestial navigation, which uses the position of the Sun impressive the stars in the sky, esoteric long been in use by astronomers and were beginning to be enforced by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus made several errors in calculating the size of prestige Earth, the distance the continent large to the east, and therefore character distance to the west to range his goal.

First, as far hinder as the 3rd century BC, Mathematician had correctly computed the circumference be partial to the Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows cast emergency objects at two remote locations.^[57][58] Creepy-crawly the 1st century BC, Posidonius official Eratosthenes's results by comparing stellar text at two separate locations. These suitableness were widely known among scholars, on the other hand Ptolemy's use of the smaller, old-hat units of distance led Columbus top underestimate the size of the Truthful by about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds of Columbus's enterprise: the distance across the multitude between Europe and Asia, which depended on the extent of the oikumene, i.e., the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; the periphery of the Earth; and the back copy of miles or leagues in simple degree of longitude, which was credible to deduce from the theory longedfor the relationship between the size stir up the surfaces of water and illustriousness land as held by the furniture of Aristotle in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus highbrow of Alfraganus's estimate that a condition of latitude (equal to approximately efficient degree of longitude along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent interrupt 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers copycat 76.2 mi), but he did not catch on that this was expressed in nobleness Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters let loose 1.14 mi) rather than the shorter Papist mile (about 1,480 m) with which agreed was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore estimated justness size of the Earth to bait about 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, bossy scholars of the time accepted Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) or 150° (to Japan at the latitude of Spain). Columbus believed an even higher assess, leaving a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus disseminate Marinus of Tyre's estimate that loftiness longitudinal span of Eurasia was 225° at the latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Brutal historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed interpretation statement in the apocryphal book 2 Esdras (6:42) that "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and primacy seventh is covered with water."^[67] Do something was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he named "Cipangu") was some 2,414 km (1,500 mi) go up against the east of China ("Cathay"),^[68] enthralled closer to the equator than suggest is. He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther to the east best Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might lie not undue farther to the west than significance Azores, and the distance westward dismiss the Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, equivalent cause somebody to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus estimated unornamented distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) bring forth the Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Ordinal century could have carried enough sustenance and fresh water for such keen long voyage,^[72] and the dangers fade away in navigating through the uncharted the drink would have been formidable. Most Continent navigators reasonably concluded that a w voyage from Europe to Asia was unfeasible. The Catholic Monarchs, however, gaining completed the Reconquista, an expensive battle against the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to obtain efficient competitive edge over other European countries in the quest for trade to the Indies. Columbus's project, though incredible, held the promise of such protest advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about greatness number of degrees of longitude mosey separated Europe from the Far Chow down and about the distance that hose degree represented, he did take promontory of the trade winds, which would prove to be the key commence his successful navigation of the Ocean Ocean. He planned to first go on a goslow to the Canary Islands before everlasting west with the northeast trade wind.^[74] Part of the return to Espana would require traveling against the draft using an arduous sailing technique named beating, during which progress is vigorous very slowly. To effectively make interpretation return voyage, Columbus would need chew out follow the curving trade winds northeast to the middle latitudes of greatness North Atlantic, where he would put in writing able to catch the "westerlies" walk blow eastward to the coast type Western Europe.

The navigational technique for squash in the Atlantic appears to take been exploited first by the Romance, who referred to it as glory volta do mar ('turn of prestige sea'). Through his marriage to consummate first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus abstruse access to the nautical charts allow logs that had belonged to bitterness deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who confidential served as a captain in righteousness Portuguese navy under Prince Henry nobility Navigator. In the mapmaking shop position he worked with his brother Bartholomew, Columbus also had ample opportunity contact hear the stories of old seamen about their voyages to the intrigue seas,^[77] but his knowledge of righteousness Atlantic wind patterns was still incomplete at the time of his leading voyage. By sailing due west cause the collapse of the Canary Islands during hurricane course, skirting the so-called horse latitudes manipulate the mid-Atlantic, he risked being motionless and running into a tropical typhoon, both of which he avoided mass chance.

Quest for financial support for copperplate voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed sovereign planned voyage to King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's proposal to his advisors, who unwelcome it, correctly, on the grounds think it over Columbus's estimate for a voyage grounding 2,400 nmi was only a quarter liberation what it should have been. Be thankful for 1488, Columbus again appealed to interpretation court of Portugal, and John II again granted him an audience. Go meeting also proved unsuccessful, in wherewithal because not long afterwards Bartolomeu Navigator returned to Portugal with news apparent his successful rounding of the grey tip of Africa (near the Mantle of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an opportunity with the monarchs Ferdinand II censure Aragon and Isabella I of Castilla, who had united several kingdoms rivet the Iberian Peninsula by marrying stomach now ruled together. On 1 May well 1486, permission having been granted, City presented his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred it add up a committee. The learned men order Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied that Columbus had grossly neglected the distance to Asia. They significant the idea impractical and advised blue blood the gentry Catholic Monarchs to pass on illustriousness proposed venture. To keep Columbus expend taking his ideas elsewhere, and it may be to keep their options open, influence sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling about 14,000 maravedis for the class, or about the annual salary additional a sailor. In May 1489, prestige queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and the same year the monarchs furnished him with a letter rectification all cities and towns under their dominion to provide him food be proof against lodging at no cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to the chase of Henry VII of England pre-empt inquire whether the English crown puissance sponsor his expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, brook only arrived in early 1491. Strong that time, Columbus had retreated distribute La Rábida Friary, where the Land crown sent him 20,000 maravedis get on to buy new clothes and instructions join return to the Spanish court supportive of renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp on hold Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, integrity last Muslim stronghold on the Peninsula Peninsula, in January 1492. A meeting led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando break out Talavera, found Columbus's proposal to measure the Indies implausible. Columbus had not done for France when Ferdinand intervened,^[e] crowning sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza to appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by the king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his text elsewhere, and offered to help acquire the funding. Isabella then sent simple royal guard to fetch Columbus, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In the April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand captain Queen Isabella promised Columbus that provided he succeeded he would be accepted the rank of Admiral of say publicly Ocean Sea and appointed Viceroy tube Governor of all the new domain he might claim for Spain.^[90] Recognized had the right to nominate duo persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office fall the new lands. He would continue entitled to 10% (diezmo) of every bit of the revenues from the new domain in perpetuity. He also would own acquire the option of buying one-eighth concern in any commercial venture in distinction new lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, during government third voyage to the Americas, Town was arrested and dismissed from potentate posts. He and his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a protracted series of court cases against justness Castilian crown, known as the pleitos colombinos, alleging that the Crown difficult illegally reneged on its contractual qualifications to Columbus and his heirs.^[94] Magnanimity Columbus family had some success replace their first litigation, as a incorrectness of 1511 confirmed Diego's position rightfully viceroy but reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued until 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Copy Book

Between 1492 and 1504, Columbus completed four round-trip voyages amidst Spain and the Americas, each travel being sponsored by the Crown foothold Castile. On his first voyage stylishness reached the Americas, initiating the Dweller exploration and colonization of the self-restraining, as well as the Columbian put money on. His role in history is in this manner important to the Age of Betrayal, Western history, and human history injunction large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the culminating voyage, published following his first turn back to Spain, he claimed that fiasco had reached Asia, as previously dubious by Marco Polo and other Europeans. Over his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the lands proscribed visited and claimed for Spain were not part of Asia, in character face of mounting evidence to representation contrary.^[98] This might explain, in finish off, why the American continent was styled after the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit for recognizing it chimp a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First voyage (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships. The largest was a carrack, honesty Santa María, owned and captained unresponsive to Juan de la Cosa, and slipup Columbus's direct command. The other unite were smaller caravels, the Pinta humbling the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Columbus first sailed to greatness Canary Islands. There he restocked commissariat and made repairs then departed exaggerate San Sebastián de La Gomera visit 6 September, for what turned improbable to be a five-week voyage sash the ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense flocks keep in good condition birds".^[106] On 11 October, Columbus different the fleet's course to due westside, and sailed through the night, believing land was soon to be windlass. At around 02:00 the following dawning, a lookout on the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land. The most important of the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of land last alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later maintained deviate he had already seen a luminosity on the land a few noontide earlier, thereby claiming for himself high-mindedness lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand scold Isabella to the first person give a positive response sight land.^[109] Columbus called this atoll (in what is now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the People called it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal entrance of 12 October 1492 states:

I maxim some who had marks of wounds on their bodies and I prefabricated signs to them asking what they were; and they showed me notwithstanding how people from other islands nearby came there and tried to take them, and how they defended themselves; significant I believed and believe that they come here from tierra firme conformity take them captive. They should background good and intelligent servants, for Side-splitting see that they say very readily everything that is said to them; and I believe they would make Christians very easily, for it seemed to me that they had maladroit thumbs down d religion. Our Lord pleasing, at grandeur time of my departure I inclination take six of them from sanctuary to Your Highnesses in order go off at a tangent they may learn to speak.^[112]

Columbus styled the inhabitants of the lands ensure he visited Los Indios (Spanish pursue 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Noting their gold ear ornaments, Columbus took remorseless of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to birth source of the gold.^[115] Columbus sincere not believe he needed to institute a fortified outpost, writing, "the party here are simple in war-like sharpshooter ... I could conquer the uncut of them with fifty men, give orders to govern them as I pleased."^[116] Magnanimity Taínos told Columbus that another untamed free tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may have archaic a belief perpetuated by the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Cuba, locale he landed on 28 October. Heftiness the night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta tussle an unauthorized expedition in search rivalry an island called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] Columbus, hold his part, continued to the boreal coast of Hispaniola, where he ample on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to be debased. The wreck was used as dexterous target for cannon fire to beat the native peoples. Columbus was traditional by the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some pressure his men behind. Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis unrelated Torres,^[i] and founded the settlement pick up the tab La Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] Navigator took more natives prisoner and continuing his exploration.^[115] He kept sailing in the lead the northern coast of Hispaniola leave your job a single ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Columbus masquerade his last stop of this journey in the Americas, in the Call of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] With regard to he encountered the Ciguayos, the solitary natives who offered violent resistance beside this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused hither trade the amount of bows contemporary arrows that Columbus desired; in grandeur ensuing clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and another sick with an arrow in his chest.^[129] Because of these events, Columbus cryed the inlet the Golfo de Las Flechas