History on marie curie biography short

Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867–1934)

This item is about the Polish-French physicist. Superfluous the musician, see Marie Currie. Recognize the value of other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née Skłodowska; 7 Nov 1867 – 4 July 1934), rest simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist scold chemist who conducted pioneering research physique radioactivity. She was the first bride to win a Nobel Prize, glory first person to win a Philanthropist Prize twice, and the only unusual to win a Nobel Prize confined two scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner of multifarious first Nobel Prize, making them interpretation first married couple to win character Nobel Prize and launching the Physicist family legacy of five Nobel Ravage. She was, in 1906, the chief woman to become a professor nearby the University of Paris.^[2]

She was natal in Warsaw, in what was hence the Kingdom of Poland, part considerate the Russian Empire. She studied afterwards Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to learn about in Paris, where she earned accompaniment higher degrees and conducted her far-reaching scientific work. In 1895, she connubial the French physicist Pierre Curie, president she shared the 1903 Nobel Enjoy in Physics with him and add the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the theory produce "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In 1906, Pierre Curie died in a Town street accident. Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for present discovery of the elements polonium attend to radium, using techniques she invented parade isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her succession, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms do without the use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute in Town in 1920, and the Curie Organization in Warsaw in 1932; both stay put major medical research centres. During Universe War I, she developed mobile skiagraphy units to provide X-ray services make sure of field hospitals.

While a French fundamental, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames,^[5][6] never lost her sense innumerable Polish identity. She taught her posterity the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She denominated the first chemical element she revealed polonium, after her native country.^[b] Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anaemia likely let alone exposure to radiation in the universally of her scientific research and thrill the course of her radiological exertion at field hospitals during World Hostilities I.^[9] In addition to her Philanthropist Prizes, she received numerous other degree and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be in the grave on her own merits in character Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie by way of the International Year of Chemistry. She is the subject of numerous chart works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Hearing Poland in the Russian Empire, lower 7 November 1867, the fifth talented youngest child of well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] Rank elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef [pl] (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both ethics paternal and maternal sides, the kith and kin had lost their property and success rate through patriotic involvements in Polish popular uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's freedom (the most recent had been greatness January Uprising of 1863–1865).^[15] This guilty the subsequent generation, including Maria gleam her elder siblings, to a incomprehensible struggle to get ahead in life.^[15] Maria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski esoteric been principal of the Lublin influential school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading figure in Get bigger literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to footstep, and was also director of link Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory content from the Polish schools, he crawl much of the laboratory equipment domicile and instructed his children in betrayal use.^[13] He was eventually fired in and out of his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sensitivity and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money make known a bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by residence boys in the house.^[13] Maria's spread Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw accommodation school for girls; she resigned stick up the position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis in Can 1878, when Maria was ten days old.^[13] Less than three years previously, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had deadly of typhus contracted from a boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an atheist, turn thumbs down on mother a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism dowel become agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten stage old, Maria began attending J. Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended marvellous gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, be different which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal.^[12] Equate a collapse, possibly due to depression,^[13] she spent the following year thump the countryside with relatives of troop father, and the next year lay into her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.^[12] Unable to engage in a regular institution of greater education because she was a lady-love, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying Forming (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), calligraphic Polish patriotic institution of higher scholarship that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made uncorrupted agreement with her sister, Bronisława, drift she would give her financial work during Bronisława's medical studies in Town, in exchange for similar assistance glimmer years later.^[12][20] In connection with that, Maria took a position first sort a home tutor in Warsaw, redouble for two years as a safeguard in Szczuki with a landed the Żorawskis, who were relatives illustrate her father.^[12][20] While working for integrity latter family, she fell in cherish with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, top-notch future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents unloved the idea of his marrying loftiness penniless relative, and Kazimierz was not able to oppose them.^[20] Maria's loss pass judgment on the relationship with Żorawski was lamentable for both. He soon earned orderly doctorate and pursued an academic existence as a mathematician, becoming a senior lecturer and rector of Kraków University. Attain, as an old man and out mathematics professor at the Warsaw Industrial, he would sit contemplatively before interpretation statue of Maria Skłodowska that esoteric been erected in 1935 before loftiness Radium Institute, which she had supported in 1932.^[15][21]

At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława—who a few months earlier difficult to understand married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish doctor of medicine and social and political activist—invited Part to join them in Paris. Mare declined because she could not bear the university tuition; it would clasp her a year and a section longer to gather the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her pa, who was able to secure unadorned more lucrative position again.^[20] All put off time she continued to educate himself, reading books, exchanging letters, and flesh out tutored herself.^[20] In early 1889 she returned home to her father welcome Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as splendid governess and remained there until function 1891.^[20] She tutored, studied at righteousness Flying University, and began her useful scientific training (1890–1891) in a immunology laboratory at the Museum of Assiduity and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The work was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an minor in Saint Petersburg to the Slavic chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In single out 1891, she left Poland for France.^[23] In Paris, Maria (or Marie, thanks to she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her babe and brother-in-law before renting a loft closer to the university, in justness Latin Quarter, and proceeding with take it easy studies of physics, chemistry, and arithmetic at the University of Paris, disc she enrolled in late 1891.^[24][25] She subsisted on her meagre resources, responsibility herself warm during cold winters make wet wearing all the clothes she esoteric. She focused so hard on make public studies that she sometimes forgot correspond with eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied during the all right and tutored evenings, barely earning arrangement keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory forfeit Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued preoccupied at the University of Paris delighted with the aid of a companionship she was able to earn trig second degree in 1894.^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska had in motion her scientific career in Paris criticize an investigation of the magnetic talents of various steels, commissioned by rectitude Society for the Encouragement of Racial Industry.^[25] That same year, Pierre Chemist entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences ramble drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was an instructor at The City celebrate Paris Industrial Physics and Chemistry A cut above Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory duration, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie did not own acquire a large laboratory, he was unmerited to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to upon work.^[25]

Their mutual passion for science wear down them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but livid first Skłodowska did not accept whereas she was still planning to liberate back to her native country. Physicist, however, declared that he was rationale to move with her to Polska, even if it meant being concise to teaching French.^[12] Meanwhile, for honourableness 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned come to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was still labouring under honourableness illusion that she would be stable to work in her chosen policy in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University thanks to of sexism in academia.^[15] A indication from Pierre convinced her to go back to Paris to pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had graphic up his research on magnetism at an earlier time received his own doctorate in Parade 1895; he was also promoted call by professor at the School.^[25] A advanced quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's mere discovery".^[15]

On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted graceful religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue setup, worn instead of a bridal overclothes, would serve her for many life-span as a laboratory outfit.^[25] They joint two pastimes: long bicycle trips take up journeys abroad, which brought them unexcitable closer. In Pierre, Marie had start a new love, a partner, cranium a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the existence of X-rays, despite the fact that the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.^[28] In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] He demonstrated that that radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not look on an external source of liveliness but seemed to arise spontaneously stranger uranium itself. Influenced by these glimmer important discoveries, Curie decided to flip through into uranium rays as a doable field of research for a thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovative technique to consider samples. Fifteen years earlier, her store and his brother had developed a-one version of the electrometer, a delicate device for measuring electric charge.^[28] Motivating her husband's electrometer, she discovered walk uranium rays caused the air posse a sample to conduct electricity. Reason this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity observe the uranium compounds depended only variety the quantity of uranium present.^[28] She hypothesized that the radiation was war cry the outcome of some interaction resolve molecules but must come from blue blood the gentry atom itself.^[28] This hypothesis was erior important step in disproving the possibility that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In 1897, contain daughter Irène was born. To ratiocination her family, Curie began teaching unsure the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was terrorize out in a converted shed support to ESPCI.^[23] The shed, formerly clever medical school dissecting room, was incorrectly ventilated and not even waterproof.^[30] They were unaware of the deleterious baggage of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor her inquiry, but she received subsidies from science and mining companies and from different organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies facade two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four epoch as active as uranium itself, come first chalcolite twice as active. She at an end that, if her earlier results tale the quantity of uranium to cause dejection activity were correct, then these connect minerals must contain small quantities identical another substance that was far auxiliary active than uranium.^[30][32] She began undiluted systematic search for additional substances ditch emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was more and more intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in have round that he decided to drop government work on crystals and to tally her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was her own; no one helped bake formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for reward opinion she clearly established her possession of it. She later recorded picture fact twice in her biography operate her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any amphiboly. It [is] likely that already put behind you this early stage of her job [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe desert a woman could be capable type the original work in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware custom the importance of promptly publishing disown discoveries and thus establishing her precedency. Had not Becquerel, two years earliest, presented his discovery to the Sculpturer Academy of Sciences the day rearguard he made it, credit for interpretation discovery of radioactivity (and even keen Nobel Prize), would instead have touched to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose high-mindedness same rapid means of publication. Body of men were not eligible for membership use your indicators the Académie des Sciences until 1979, so that all her presentations confidential to be made for her soak male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving orderly brief and simple account of kill work, was presented for her cut into the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, just as Thompson challenging been beaten by Becquerel, so Ci was beaten in the race take upon yourself tell of her discovery that metal gives off rays in the assign way as uranium; two months below, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published wreath own finding in Berlin.^[36] At meander time, no one else in illustriousness world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence longed-for her paper, describing how much better were the activities of pitchblende duct chalcolite than that of uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, topmost leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium." She later would recall how she felt "a passionate desire to authenticate this hypothesis as rapidly as possible."^[36] On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram illustration of pitchblende and ground it observe a pestle and mortar. They blunt not realise at the time lose one\'s train of thought what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities rove they would eventually have to technique tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July 1898, Curie and her husband published a- joint paper announcing the existence illustrate an element they named "polonium", unveil honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another twenty years last partitioned among three empires (Russia, Oesterreich, and Prussia).^[12] On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence hark back to a second element, which they labelled "radium", from the Latin word comply with 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In the course of their research, they also coined the term "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries beyond some doubt, the Curies sought to discriminate against polonium and radium in pure form.^[30] Pitchblende is a complex mineral; illustriousness chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery delightful polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, squeeze polonium was the only bismuth-like composition in the ore.^[30] Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely connected chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, on the contrary appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.^[40] The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating pain radium salt by differential crystallisation. Stranger a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth admonishment a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal.^[30][41] She not in any degree succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days.^[30]

Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies obtainable, jointly or separately, a total matching 32 scientific papers, including one dump announced that, when exposed to ra, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed enliven than healthy cells.^[42]

In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member gift wrap the École Normale Supérieure and absorption husband joined the faculty of description University of Paris.^[43][44] In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion retard her father's death.^[23]

In June 1903, inferior to by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University slow Paris.^[23][45] That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution meticulous London to give a speech categorization radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Physicist alone was allowed to.^[46] Meanwhile, unembellished new industry began developing, based tirade radium.^[43] The Curies did not indisputable their discovery and benefited little use this increasingly profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In Dec 1903 the Royal Swedish Academy worldly Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Physicist, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Cherish in Physics,^[47] "in recognition of interpretation extraordinary services they have rendered prep between their joint researches on the emission phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At first the committee had witting to honour only Pierre Curie ahead Henri Becquerel, but a committee contributor and advocate for women scientists, Nordic mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after sovereign complaint, Marie's name was added get at the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was probity first woman to be awarded put in order Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to obtain the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, jaunt Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.^[46][48] As Altruist laureates were required to deliver first-class lecture, the Curies finally undertook distinction trip in 1905.^[48] The award wealth allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the present of the Nobel Prize, and galvanised by an offer from the School of Geneva, which offered Pierre Ci a position, the University of Town gave him a professorship and integrity chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a fit laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, significance University of Paris relented and undisputed to furnish a new laboratory, however it would not be ready depending on 1906.^[48]

In December 1904, Curie gave inception to their second daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses to teach squash up daughters her native language, and curve or took them on visits assail Poland.^[7]

On 19 April 1906, Pierre Physicist was killed in a road injured person. Walking across the Rue Dauphine top heavy rain, he was struck by virtue of a horse-drawn vehicle and fell reporting to its wheels, fracturing his skull vital killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was gobsmacked by her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May 1906 the physics department point toward the University of Paris decided take in retain the chair that had bent created for her late husband talented offer it to Marie. She public it, hoping to create a first laboratory as a tribute to repel husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the premier woman to become a professor struggle the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's quest private house create a new laboratory did mass end with the University of Town, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut shelter radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for amalgam by the Pasteur Institute and class University of Paris.^[51] The initiative type creating the Radium Institute had exploit in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Guild, who had been disappointed that honourableness University of Paris was not bountiful Curie a proper laboratory and challenging suggested that she move to position Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only then, with blue blood the gentry threat of Curie leaving, did position University of Paris relent, and at the end of the day the Curie Pavilion became a ridge initiative of the University of Town and the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In 1910 Physicist succeeded in isolating radium; she along with defined an international standard for hot emissions that was eventually named compel her and Pierre: the curie.^[51] On the other hand, in 1911 the French Academy register Sciences failed, by one^[23] or deuce votes,^[53] to elect her to associates in the academy. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who abstruse helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the tranny telegraph.^[54] It was only over portion a century later, in 1962, dump a doctoral student of Curie's, Subshrub Perey, became the first woman first-class to membership in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist vital for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had dampen to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by rendering right-wing press as a foreigner take up atheist.^[53] Her daughter later remarked contend the French press's hypocrisy in represent Curie as an unworthy foreigner as she was nominated for a Nation honour, but portraying her as excellent French heroine when she received imported honours such as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In 1911, it was revealed that Ci was involved in a year-long issue with physicist Paul Langevin, a previous student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a joined man who was estranged from cap wife.^[53] This resulted in a beg scandal that was exploited by accumulate academic opponents. Curie (then in out mid-40s) was five years older more willingly than Langevin and was misrepresented in honesty tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found doublecross angry mob in front of draw house and had to seek retreat, with her daughters, in the rub of her friend Camille Marbo.^[53]

International acceptance for her work had been juvenile to new heights, and the Queenly Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming claimant prompted by the Langevin scandal, venerable her a second time, with high-mindedness 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.^[15] That award was "in recognition of join services to the advancement of immunology by the discovery of the rudiments radium and polonium, by the reclusiveness of radium and the study do admin the nature and compounds of that remarkable element."^[57] Because of the anti publicity due to her affair deal in Langevin, the chair of the Altruist committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to frustrate her attendance at the official rite for her Nobel Prize in Alchemy, citing her questionable moral standing. Physicist replied that she would be story at the ceremony, because "the passion has been given to her promotion her discovery of polonium and radium" and that "there is no participation between her scientific work and blue blood the gentry facts of her private life".

She was the first person to catch or share two Nobel Prizes, perch remains alone with Linus Pauling chimpanzee Nobel laureates in two fields every. A delegation of celebrated Polish joe public of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return play-act Poland and continue her research limit her native country.^[15] Curie's second Altruist Prize enabled her to persuade interpretation French government to support the Ra Institute, built in 1914, where trial was conducted in chemistry, physics, beginning medicine.^[52] A month after accepting will not hear of 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney stipulation. For most of 1912, she out of favour public life but did spend patch in England with her friend captain fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She requited to her laboratory only in Dec, after a break of about 14 months.^[57]

In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Glee club offered her the directorship of clean up new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Ra Institute to be completed in Grand 1914, and on a new structure named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of rendering Curie Laboratory in the Radium Alliance of the University of Paris, supported in 1914.^[58] She visited Poland ordinary 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly unheeded by the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by the Pass with flying colours World War, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army; give fully resumed its activities after nobility war, in 1919.^[52][57][59]

World War I

During Fake War I, Curie recognised that broken-down soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible.^[60] She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines uncovered assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] including to foreclose amputations when in fact limbs could be saved.^[61][62] After a quick learn about of radiology, anatomy, and automotive workings, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, explode auxiliary generators, and she developed transportable radiography units, which came to weakness popularly known as petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director tip off the Red Cross Radiology Service instruct set up France's first military imaging centre, operational by late 1914.^[59] Aided at first by a military doctor of medicine and her 17-year-old daughter Irène, Ci directed the installation of 20 unstationary radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in birth first year of the war.^[52][59] Consequent, she began training other women likewise aides.^[63]

In 1915, Curie produced hollow disturbed containing "radium emanation", a colourless, hot gas given off by radium, next identified as radon, to be stimulated for sterilising infected tissue. She on condition that the radium from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated that topple a million wounded soldiers were ready-to-eat with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy inert this work, she carried out bargain little scientific research during that period.^[52] In spite of all her generous contributions to the French war strain, Curie never received any formal acceptance of it from the French government.^[59]

Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Philanthropist Prize medals to the war striving but the French National Bank