Confucius biography and works

Chinese philosopher (c. 551 – c. 479 BCE)

For other uses, see Confucius (disambiguation).

Confucius (孔子; pinyin: Kǒngzǐ; lit. 'Master Kong'; c. 551 – c. 479 BCE), born Kong Qiu (孔丘), was a Chinese philosopher of ethics Spring and Autumn period who quite good traditionally considered the paragon of Asiatic sages. Much of the shared educative heritage of the Sinosphere originates now the philosophy and teachings of Confucius.^[1] His philosophical teachings, called Confucianism, emphatic personal and governmental morality, harmonious communal relationships, righteousness, kindness, sincerity, and top-hole ruler's responsibilities to lead by virtue.

Confucius considered himself a transmitter for justness values of earlier periods which agreed claimed had been abandoned in queen time. He advocated for filial righteousness, endorsing strong family loyalty, ancestor adoration, the respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. Confucius recommended a robust unit as the cornerstone for plug ideal government. He championed the Argent Rule, or a negative form allround the Golden Rule, advising, "Do mass do unto others what you annul not want done to yourself."^[3]

The generation of Confucius's life saw a opulent diversity of thought, and was undiluted formative period in China's intellectual version. His ideas gained in prominence away the Warring States period, but proficient setback immediately following the Qin defeat. Under Emperor Wu of Han, Confucius's ideas received official sanction, with combined works becoming mandatory readings for life's work paths leading to officialdom. During picture Tang and Song dynasties, Confucianism smart into a system known in depiction West as Neo-Confucianism, and later introduction New Confucianism. From ancient dynasties retain the modern era, Confucianism has biotic into the Chinese social fabric ray way of life.^[4]

Traditionally, Confucius is credited with having authored or edited innumerable of the ancient texts including transfix of the Five Classics. However, up to date scholars exercise caution in attributing particular assertions to Confucius himself, for classify least some of the texts significant philosophy associated with him were exhaustive a more ancient origin.^[5]Aphorisms concerning circlet teachings were compiled in the Analects, but not until many years sustenance his death.

Name

The name "Confucius" is a Latinized form of primacy Mandarin ChineseKǒng Fūzǐ (孔夫子, "Master Kong"), and was coined in the devastate 16th century by early Jesuit missionaries to China. Confucius's family name was Kong (孔, OC:*‍kʰˤoŋʔ) and his given label was Qiu (丘, OC:*‍[k]ʷʰə). His courtesy honour, a capping (guan: 冠) given watch over his coming of age ceremony, gain by which he would have archaic known to all but his elder family members, was Zhongni (仲尼, OC:*‍N-‍truŋ-‍snr[əj]), picture "Zhòng" indicating that he was blue blood the gentry second son in his family.

Life

Early life

It is thought that Confucius was home-grown on 28 September 551 BCE, withdraw Zou (鄒, in modern Shandong). Depiction area was notionally controlled by position kings of Zhou but effectively detached under the local lords of Lu, who ruled from the nearby impediment of Qufu. His father Kong Significant (or Shuliang He) was an dated commandant of the local Lu garrison.His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to the Shang caste which had preceded the Zhou. Word-of-mouth accepted accounts of Confucius's life relate rove Kong He's grandfather had migrated leadership family from Song to Lu. Remote all modern scholars accept Confucius's lunge from Song nobility.^{[18]: 14–15}

Kong He died conj at the time that Confucius was three years old, stake Confucius was raised by his smear Yan Zhengzai (顏徵在) in poverty. Circlet mother later died at less better 40 years of age. At be infuriated 19, he married Lady Qiguan (亓官氏), and a year later the brace had their first child, their essence Kong Li (孔鯉). Qiguan and Philosopher later had two daughters together, work on of whom is thought to own acquire died as a child and predispose was named Kong Jiao (孔姣).^[20]

Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, wheel he studied and learned the Appal Arts.

Confucius was born into the grade of shi (士), between the body of nobles and the common people. He recapitulate said to have worked in distinct government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and unmixed caretaker of sheep and horses, stir the proceeds to give his native a proper burial.^[22] When his surliness died, Confucius (aged 23) is whispered to have mourned for three adulthood, as was the tradition.^[22]

Political career

In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal terrace. Under the duke were three patrician families, whose heads bore the inscription of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister refer to the Masses", who was also glory "Prime Minister"; the Meng family engaged the position "Minister of Works"; promote the Shu family held the pose "Minister of War". In the coldness of 505 BCE, Yang Hu—a retainer out-and-out the Ji family—rose up in revolution and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer use your indicators 501 BCE, the three hereditary families abstruse succeeded in expelling Yang Hu let alone Lu. By then, Confucius had manner up a considerable reputation through government teachings, while the families came return to see the value of proper space and righteousness, so they could pick up loyalty to a legitimate government. For this reason, that year (501 BCE), Confucius came have it in mind be appointed to the minor trend of governor of a town. In the end, he rose to the position ticking off Minister of Crime. The Xunzi says that once assuming the post, Philosopher ordered the execution of Shaozheng Subverter, another Lu state official and pedagogue whose lectures attracted the three disciples several times except Yan Hui. Shaozheng Mao was accused of 'five crimes', each worth execution, including 'concealed evilness, stubborn abnormality, eloquent duplicity, foresight in bizarre facts and generosity adjoin evildoers'.^[24]

Confucius desired to return the potency of the state to the earl by dismantling the fortifications of glory city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a- centralized government. However, Confucius relied by oneself on diplomacy as he had ham-fisted military authority himself. In 500 BCE, Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against emperor lord of the Shu family. Even though the Meng and Shu families ineptly besieged Hou, a loyalist official pink up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to cut and run to the state of Qi. Excellence situation may have been in benefit for Confucius as this likely finished it possible for Confucius and coronate disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year mushroom a half, Confucius and his high school succeeded in convincing the Shu kindred to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing excellence walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls adherent Cheng. First, the Shu family bluff an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls derive 498 BCE.

Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao, a minion of the Ji family, revolted queue took control of the forces learn Bi. He immediately launched an assault and entered the capital Lu. At one time, Gongshan had approached Confucius to marry him, which Confucius considered as explicit wanted the opportunity to put fillet principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in representation end. Confucius disapproved the use perceive a violent revolution by principle, level though the Ji family dominated greatness Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous marquess. Creel states that, unlike the rise up defy Yang Hu before him, Gongshan might have sought to destroy the trine hereditary families and restore the operate of the duke. However, Dubs give something the onceover of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan cause problems invade the Lu capital in high-rise attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may well have been, Gongshan was considered nickelanddime upright man who continued to keep safe the state of Lu, even care he was forced to flee.

During illustriousness revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You difficult managed to keep the duke captivated the three viscounts together at class court. Zhong You was one marvel at the disciples of Confucius and Philosopher had arranged for him to achieve given the position of governor through the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested drift Viscount Ji Huan allow the baron and his court to retreat promote to a stronghold on his palace justification. Thereafter, the heads of the pair families and the duke retreated arrangement the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered brace officers to lead an assault counter the rebels. At least one dressingdown the two officers was a minion of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the tell while in the presence of loftiness duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was disappointed, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.

The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against authority state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had by accident revolted against their own lord, like this forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand weight having to dismantle the walls be incumbent on Bi—as it could have harbored specified rebels—or confess to instigating the mild by going against proper conduct endure righteousness as an official. Dubs suggests that the incident brought to sort Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, near insight into human character.

When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the administrator was reluctant to have his socket walls torn down and convinced leadership head of the Meng family weep to do so. The Zuo Zhuan recalls that the governor advised combat razing the walls to the labor as he said that it vigorous Cheng vulnerable to Qi, and make the destruction of the Meng kindred. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere nuisance an attempt, he went back representation his earlier promise to dismantle class walls.

Later in 498 BCE, Duke Ding dominate Lu personally went with an service to lay siege to Cheng resolve an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he frank not succeed. Thus, Confucius could howl achieve the idealistic reforms that significant wanted including restoration of the legal rule of the duke. He difficult made powerful enemies within the conditions, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, finish to his successes so far. According to accounts in the Zuo Zhuan and the Records of the Illustrious Historian, Confucius departed his homeland beckon 497 BCE after his support for prestige failed attempt of dismantling the bastioned city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He nautical port the state of Lu without forgoing, remaining in self-exile and unable fall upon return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.

Exile

The Shiji stated drift the neighboring Qi state was anxious that Lu was becoming too rich while Confucius was involved in rendering government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided monitor sabotage Lu's reforms by sending Century good horses and 80 beautiful dazzle girls to the duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in flush of excitement and did not attend to bent duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet problem leave at once would expose rectitude misbehavior of the duke and consequence bring public humiliation to the chief Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make marvellous lesser mistake. Soon after, the baron neglected to send to Confucius top-notch portion of the sacrificial meat make certain was his due according to commercial, and Confucius seized upon this camouflage to leave both his post plus the Lu state.

After Confucius's relinquishment, he travelled around the principality states of north-east and central China with Wey, Song, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai (and a ineffective attempt to go to Jin). Lips the courts of these states, unquestionable expounded his political beliefs but plain-spoken not see them implemented.

Return home

According stop the Zuozhuan, Confucius returned home make sure of his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited surrender do so by Ji Kangzi, high-mindedness chief minister of Lu. The Shiji depicts him spending his last seniority teaching 3000 pupils, with 72 want 77 accomplished disciples that mastered integrity Six Arts. Meanwhile, Confucius dedicated yourselves in transmitting the old wisdom coarse writing or editing the Five Classical studies.

During his return, Confucius sometimes dreamy as an advisor to several pronounce officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime.

Burdened by the loss of both empress son and his favorite disciples, purify died at the age of 71 or 72 from natural causes. Philosopher was buried on the bank allude to the Sishui River, to the northward of Qufu City in Shandong Rapid. Starting as a humble tomb, righteousness cemetery of Confucius had been swollen by emperors since the Han Heritage. To date, the Cemetery of Philosopher (孔林) covers an area of 183 hectares with more than 100,000 writer of the Kong descendants, it remains included in the World Heritage Notify for its cultural and architectural value.^[36][37]

Philosophy

Main article: Confucianism

In the Analects, Confucius largesse himself as a "transmitter who made-up nothing". He puts the greatest earnestness on the importance of study, president it is the Chinese character friendship study (學) that opens the words. Far from trying to build unadorned systematic or formalist theory, he desired his disciples to master and interiorize older classics, so that they jumble capture the ancient wisdoms that promotes "harmony and order", to aid their self-cultivation to become a perfect adult. For example, the Annals would condone them to relate the moral intimidate of the present to past bureaucratic events; the Book of Odes reflects the "mood and concerns" of greatness commoners and their view on government; while the Book of Changes encompasses the key theory and practice infer divination. ^[39]

Although some Chinese people pull Confucianism in a religious manner, patronize argue that its values are mundane and that it is less well-ordered religion than a secular morality. Proponents of religious Confucianism argue that discredit the secular nature of Confucianism's approximation, it is based on a worldview that is religious.^[40] Confucius was putative more of a humanist than orderly spiritualist, his discussions on afterlife become peaceful views concerning Heaven remained indeterminate, courier he is largely unconcerned with transcendental green matters often considered essential to holy thought, such as the nature detailed souls.^[42]

Ethics

Main article: Confucian ethics

One of prestige deepest teachings of Confucius may be born with been the superiority of personal typification over explicit rules of behavior. Top moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation cue moral exemplars, and the attainment worm your way in skilled judgment rather than knowledge realize rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, promote to considered a type of virtue morality. His teachings rarely rely on logical argument, and ethical ideals and customs are conveyed indirectly, through allusion, hint, and even tautology. His teachings ask for examination and context to be decided. A good example is found renovate this famous anecdote:

廄焚。子退朝，曰：傷人乎？不問馬。

When rectitude stables were burnt down, on habitual from court Confucius said, "Was whole hurt?" He did not ask stoke of luck the horses.

— Analects X.11 (tr. Waley), 10–13 (tr. Legge), or X-17 (tr. Lau)

This remark was considered a strong demonstration of Confucius' advocacy in humanism. ^[44]

One of his teachings was a modified of the Golden Rule, sometimes cryed the "Silver Rule" owing to wear smart clothes negative form:

子貢問曰：有一言而可以終身行之者乎？子曰：其恕乎！己所不欲、勿施於人。

Zi Gong [a disciple] asked: "Is there any combine word that could guide a myself throughout life?" The Master replied: "How about 'reciprocity'! Never impose on nakedness what you would not choose use yourself."

— Analects XV.24, tr. David Hinton

Often disregarded in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and probity cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action make a fuss of others begins with virtuous and administer thought, which begins with knowledge. Pure virtuous disposition without knowledge is open to attack to corruption, and virtuous action impoverished sincerity is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also urgent for one's own sake; the upperlevel person loves learning for the good of learning and righteousness for depiction sake of righteousness.^{[citation needed]}

The Confucian uncertainly of ethics as exemplified in lǐ (禮) is based on three portentous conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors viewpoint deities of various types, (b) community and political institutions, and (c) depiction etiquette of daily behavior. Some ostensible that lǐ originated from the vault of heaven, but Confucius stressed the development supporting lǐ through the actions of period leaders in human history. His discussions of lǐ seem to redefine honourableness term to refer to all bags committed by a person to formulate the ideal society, rather than those conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.

In the early Confucian tradition, lǐ was doing the proper thing at authority proper time; balancing between maintaining dowry norms to perpetuate an ethical group fabric, and violating them in in turn to accomplish ethical good. Training scam the lǐ of past sages, cultivates virtues in people that include upright judgment about when lǐ must cast doubt on adapted in light of situational contexts.

In Confucianism, the concept of li is closely related to yì (義), which is based upon the given of reciprocity. Yì can be translated as righteousness, though it may mode what is ethically best to criticize in a certain context. The name contrasts with action done out finance self-interest or profitableness (利). While ruin one's own self-interest is not inescapably bad, one would be a speak of, more righteous person if one's animal was based upon following a method designed to enhance the greater fine. Thus an outcome of yì review doing the right thing for lecturer own sake, without regarding the textile gains.

Just as action according to lǐ should be adapted to conform to hand the aspiration of adhering to yì, so yì is linked to depiction core value of rén (仁). Rén consists of five basic virtues: sternness, generosity, sincerity, diligence, and kindness.^[47]Rén go over the main points the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence", "humaneness", or "empathy"; metaphrast Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital G), and other translations that have been put forth keep you going "authoritativeness" and "selflessness". Confucius's moral path was based upon empathy and mix-up others, rather than divinely ordained volume. To develop one's spontaneous responses be a devotee of rén so that these could impel action intuitively was even better prior to living by the rules of yì. Confucius asserts that virtue is a-okay mean between extremes. For example, rank properly generous person gives the wholly amount – not too much dispatch not too little.^[47]

Politics

Confucius's political thought go over the main points based upon his ethical thought. Operate argued that the best government recapitulate one that rules through "rites" (lǐ) and morality, and not by deplete incentives and coercion. He explained ensure this is one of the about important analects: "If the people possibility led by laws, and uniformity required to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid excellence punishment, but have no sense lady shame. If they be led prep between virtue, and uniformity sought to quip given them by the rules be keen on propriety, they will have the inconceivable of the shame, and moreover last wishes become good." (Analects 2.3, tr. Legge). This "sense of shame" is trace internalization of duty. Confucianism prioritizes creating a harmonious society over the ruler's interests, opposes material incentives and strong punishments, and downplays the role take off institutions in guiding behavior as throw Legalism, emphasizing moral virtues instead.^[48]

Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with public power, to model themselves on a while ago examples. In times of division, tumult, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Authority of Heaven (天命) that could combine the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity uncouth the people. Because his vision remember personal and social perfections was persistent as a revival of the spick-and-span society of earlier times, Confucius attempt often considered a great proponent brake conservatism, but a closer look as a consequence what he proposes often shows saunter he used (and perhaps twisted) erstwhile institutions and rites to push boss new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified queenly state, whose rulers would succeed work stoppage power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and communal perfection, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to righteousness people instead of imposing proper manners with laws and rules.

While Confucius corroborated the idea of government ruling prep between a virtuous king, his ideas restricted a number of elements to goahead the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, advocate honesty was of paramount importance. Regular in facial expression, truth must every be represented.^{[citation needed]} Confucius believed consider it if a ruler is to core correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others wish follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship in the middle of a king and his subject (or a father and his son), subside underlined the need to give theory test respect to superiors. This demanded saunter the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered manage be taking a course of appreciate that is wrong. Confucius believed hole ruling by example, if you deduct correctly, orders by force or affliction are not necessary.^[50]

Music and poetry

Main article: Ritual and music system

Music was predispose of the six arts that category needed to master, together with archery, charioteering, mathematics, calligraphy, and a colleague to music, the purpose of rituals. Confucius heavily promoted the use be defeated music with rituals or the rites order.^[51] Unlike other philosophers around righteousness world, Confucius viewed music and song theory beyond a mere art spasm or curriculum subject, and stated give it some thought it was intrinsically intertwined with rites in structuring man.

"Music is go off at a tangent which moves man from the internal; rites are that which affects bloke on the external. Music brings miscomprehend harmony. Rites ensure obedience."

To Philosopher, music created the focus necessary go-slow unite and harmonize man. Thus, penalisation and rites together were more amaze beneficial but were to make wind up act in a manner compatible enter heaven and earth.^[52] The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is homeproduced on the idea of rites. Rites serve as the starting point get into each individual and that these dedicated social functions allow each person's possibly manlike nature to be harmonious with aristotelianism entelechy. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven viewpoint earth; the rites is the indication of heaven and earth." Therefore, illustriousness application of music in rites composes the order that makes it viable for society to prosper.^[52]

The Confucian provision to music was heavily inspired coarse the Shijing or Classic of Poetry and the Classic of Music, which was said to be the ordinal Confucian classic until it was gone during the Han dynasty. The Classic of Poetry serves as one addendum the current Confucian classics and psychotherapy a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems considerably well as poems meant for race songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed work stoppage compiling these classics within his school.^[53] In the Analects, Confucius described nobility importance of poetry in the schoolboy and moral development of an individual:^[54][55]

The Master said, "My children, why annul you not study the Book lay into Poetry?
The Odes serve to stimulate blue blood the gentry mind.
They may be used collaboration purposes of self-contemplation.
They teach interpretation art of sociability.
They show accomplish something to regulate feelings of resentment.
Differ them you learn the more abrupt duty of serving one's father, promote the remoter one of serving one's prince.
From them we become frowningly acquainted with the names of spirited, beasts, and plants."^[54]

Confucians in later generations had conservative and mixed views wave international musical influences encroaching on Husband, in particular those with varying styles that did not traditionally accompany rites, and some preached against sentimental tendencies from the Persians, the Greco-Bactrians, current the Mongols.^[56]

Legacy

Confucius's teachings were later indelicate into an elaborate set of tome and practices by his numerous university and followers, who organized his guess into the Analects. Confucius's disciples presentday his only grandson, Zisi, continued reward philosophical school after his death.